The French
Foundation of French Centres in India
The French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) was established in 1664 under the reign of Louis XIV and his minister Colbert. The company was granted a 50-year monopoly on French trade in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, along with the island of Madagascar and any other territories it could conquer. Initial efforts focused unsuccessfully on Madagascar, leading to the establishment of factories in Surat in 1667 by Francois Caron and in Masulipatnam in 1669 by Mercara. In 1673, permission was obtained to establish a township at Chandernagore, marking the late but significant entry of the French into Indian trade.
Pondicherry—Nerve Centre of French Power in India
Pondicherry, founded in 1674 by Francois Martin, became the central stronghold of French power in India. Granted by Sher Khan Lodi, governor under the Bijapur Sultan, Pondicherry developed significantly under Martin’s governance, replacing Francois Caron. Alongside Pondicherry, the French established factories in Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, and Qasim Bazar, emphasizing their coastal trading strategy.
Early Setbacks to the French East India Company
The French East India Company faced setbacks with the Dutch capture of Pondicherry in 1693 due to the Franco-Dutch War, exacerbated by the Dutch-English alliance since 1688. Although the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) returned Pondicherry to the French, Dutch occupation persisted until 1699. The company faced further losses during the War of Spanish Succession, leading to the abandonment of several factories and the death of Francois Martin in 1706.
Reorganisation of the French Company
The French company was reorganized in 1720 as the ‘Perpetual Company of the Indies,’ marking a resurgence in its fortunes. This period saw effective governance by Lenoir and Dumas from 1720 to 1742, alongside the strategic advantage of French possessions in Mauritius and Reunion, bolstering French influence in the southern Indian Ocean and India.
The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the Carnatic Wars
The Carnatic Wars were pivotal in establishing British dominance over the French in India, marking a significant phase in the colonial struggle for supremacy in the Indian subcontinent. These wars, fought in the backdrop of European conflicts, had profound implications for the future political landscape of India.
Background of Rivalry
The Anglo-French rivalry in India was a direct extension of their historical animosity in Europe. The Austrian War of Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) provided the European backdrop for these conflicts in India. The political vacuum in South India, with the weakening of the Hyderabad and the absence of a strong power on the Coromandel Coast, offered an opportunity for both the English and the French to extend their influence and control.
First Carnatic War (1740–48)
The First Carnatic War emerged from the Anglo-French War in Europe, triggered by the Austrian War of Succession. The immediate cause was the English navy’s provocation, leading to French retaliation by capturing Madras. The war concluded with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, where Madras was returned to the English in exchange for French territories in North America. This war highlighted the significance of naval power and demonstrated that a small disciplined army could defeat larger Indian forces, setting a precedent for future conflicts.
Second Carnatic War (1749–54)
The death of Nizam-ul-Mulk and the power vacuum in Hyderabad and Carnatic provided the setting for the Second Carnatic War. Dupleix’s ambitions to expand French influence by supporting local claimants against British allies escalated the conflict. Despite initial French successes, the war’s tide turned with Robert Clive’s strategic diversion in Arcot, relieving pressure on Trichinopoly. The war concluded with a treaty that refrained both powers from intervening in native disputes, showing the growing independence of European actions from Indian political contexts.
Third Carnatic War (1758–63)
Triggered by the broader Seven Years’ War in Europe, the Third Carnatic War saw initial French successes under Count de Lally. However, the decisive Battle of Wandiwash in 1760, where General Eyre Coote defeated Lally, marked the decline of French power in India. The surrender of Pondicherry and other territories significantly reduced French influence, leading to British dominance in the region.
Conclusion
The Carnatic Wars were instrumental in shaping the colonial competition in India, leading to British supremacy. These conflicts demonstrated the shifting balance of power, the importance of military strategy and naval strength, and the diminishing role of Indian polities in determining their own fate against the backdrop of European colonial ambitions. The wars not only decided the colonial master of India but also set the stage for the expansion of British power across the Indian subcontinent, altering its political, social, and economic fabric for centuries.
Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India
Joseph Francis Dupleix’s tenure in India is a remarkable episode in the history of European colonial ambition in Asia. His strategies and actions laid the groundwork for the concept of European powers intervening in the internal politics of Indian states, an approach that would define much of the colonial era in the Indian subcontinent.
Dupleix’s Rise
Dupleix’s arrival in India and subsequent rise to power were marked by a combination of administrative acumen, diplomatic skill, and personal ambition. As the Governor-General of Pondicherry, he inherited a colony beset by numerous challenges, including military threats, economic instability, and the need for infrastructural development. Dupleix’s response to these challenges was multifaceted:
1. Administrative Reforms: He undertook significant efforts to stabilize Pondicherry’s economy, reducing public expenditure and balancing the colony’s budget, even going against the directives of his superiors when necessary, particularly in matters of fortification and defense.
2. Diplomatic Maneuvering: Dupleix was adept at navigating the complex political landscape of India. His involvement in the Carnatic Wars through alliances and manipulations showcased his ability to use diplomacy to further French interests in the region.
3. Military Engagements: Although not a military leader in the traditional sense, Dupleix’s strategic vision included the use of military force to support his diplomatic endeavors. His support for local rulers like Muzzaffar Jang in Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib in Carnatic in exchange for concessions highlighted his innovative approach to colonial governance.
The Fall of Dupleix
Despite his initial successes, Dupleix’s fall from power was precipitated by a combination of factors that highlighted both his strengths and weaknesses:
1. Over-optimism and Strategic Missteps: Dupleix’s belief in the eventual success of his plans sometimes led to prolonged engagements without immediate gains. This over-optimism, coupled with his failure to secure decisive victories in key battles, undermined his position.
2. Internal Opposition: Dupleix’s autocratic style and disregard for the opinions of his peers often led to internal conflicts within the French colonial administration. This lack of support from his subordinates weakened his authority and effectiveness.
3. Lack of Direct Military Leadership: Unlike some of his contemporaries, Dupleix rarely led military campaigns personally. This reliance on lieutenants and allies to execute his plans sometimes resulted in failures, as was evident in the inability to capture Trichinopoly.
4. Political and Economic Costs: The extensive resources committed to Dupleix’s political and military ventures placed a significant strain on the French East India Company. The financial burdens, coupled with the initial setbacks in the Second Carnatic War, led to his recall.
Legacy
Dupleix’s legacy in India is complex. On one hand, he was a visionary who understood the potential of European power in shaping the political landscape of India. His strategies of forming alliances with local rulers and intervening in their disputes set a precedent for later European colonial practices in India. On the other hand, his failures highlight the limitations of personal ambition and strategic overreach in the face of entrenched local resistance and the logistical challenges of sustaining a colonial enterprise far from home.
In conclusion, Dupleix’s career in India exemplifies the intricacies of colonial ambition, the challenges of cross-cultural governance, and the eventual limits of European power in the face of local realities and international competition.
Causes for the English Success and the French Failure
– Private Enterprise vs. State Control: The English East India Company operated as a private entity, allowing for quick decision-making and fostering enthusiasm and self-confidence among its stakeholders. In contrast, the French company was a state-run entity, burdened by governmental control and bureaucratic delays, hampering its agility and responsiveness.
– Naval Superiority: The English navy’s superiority over the French navy was crucial, especially in cutting off sea links between French possessions in India and France, affecting the French ability to supply and reinforce their positions.
– Strategic Holdings: The English controlled three major strategic locations: Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. The French, however, primarily held Pondicherry, limiting their strategic depth and access to resources.
– Commercial vs. Territorial Focus: The French prioritized territorial ambitions over commercial interests, leading to financial strains. The British, maintaining a balance between imperialistic motives and commercial interests, ensured a steady flow of funds, supporting their military and political endeavors.
– Military Leadership: The English benefited from superior military leadership with notable figures like Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, and Robert Clive. The French lacked a comparable roster of military leaders, with Dupleix being a notable but solitary figure.
Trade Goods and Practices
– High Demand for Indian Textiles: European travelers and traders documented the high demand for Indian textiles such as cotton longcloth, salempores, morees, painted cloths, prints, silks, and dyes. These goods were not only sought after in Europe but also in other Asian markets.
– Textile Trade Preceding European Arrival: Indian textiles were already popular in markets like China, Japan, and the Indonesian archipelago for their lightweight and durable qualities. Europeans capitalized on this existing trade, using Indian textiles as currency for spices in Southeast Asia and for slave trade in Africa.
– Integration into Established Systems: The French East India Company entered an established economic system with intricate networks of production and distribution managed by Indian merchants. Success required understanding and integrating into these well-established practices.
– Evolution of Trading Outposts: Initially, there was no serious rivalry among the European traders. However, as competition intensified, the English, with better funding and understanding of local practices, expanded their commercial outposts into larger industrial towns. These commercial strongholds eventually evolved into political enclaves, enabling the English to consolidate their power across India.
The passage highlights the dynamic interplay between military strategy, commercial acumen, and the ability to adapt to local conditions as key factors determining success in the colonial contest for India. The English East India Company’s private enterprise model, naval superiority, strategic territorial control, balanced focus on commerce and territory, and superior military leadership provided a competitive advantage over the French. Concurrently, the narrative underscores the significance of Indian textiles in global trade, demonstrating how European powers integrated into and exploited established trade networks, leading to the colonial expansion and consolidation of power.