The Portuguese in India
The Quest for and Discovery of a Sea Route to India
– Background: Post-Roman Empire, direct European-Indian contact diminished due to Arab control over Egypt and Persia, affecting trade routes and the accessibility of Indian commodities.
– European Exploration Motivation: The 15th-century Renaissance spurred a spirit of exploration. Advances in shipbuilding and navigation, combined with economic development in Europe, increased demand for oriental goods. The fall of Constantinople and the desire to bypass Arab intermediaries further motivated the search for a direct sea route to India.
– Portuguese Leadership: Portugal, under Prince Henry the Navigator, emerged as a leader in exploration driven by a desire to circumvent Muslim-dominated trade routes and spread Christianity. The Treaty of Tordesillas and explorations by navigators like Bartholomew Dias and Vasco Da Gama marked the beginning of Portuguese incursions into India.
From Trading to Ruling
– Vasco Da Gama’s Arrival: Da Gama’s arrival in Calicut under the guidance of a Gujarati pilot signified the start of a profound impact on Indian history. Initial friendly receptions turned into conflicts with local and Arab traders as the Portuguese aimed to monopolize the spice trade.
– Shift to Colonial Ambitions: Following trading successes and conflicts, the Portuguese began establishing factories, seizing control of strategic locations, and engaging in aggressive actions to monopolize trade. This period marked the transition from trading to ruling, with significant figures like Pedro Alvarez Cabral and Vasco Da Gama playing key roles.
– Governance and Expansion: The appointment of governors like Francisco De Almeida and Alfonso de Albuquerque signified the formalization of Portuguese control in India. Their policies aimed at consolidating power, controlling trade routes, and establishing strategic fortifications marked the establishment of Portuguese colonial presence in the region.
Key Figures and Policies
– Francisco De Almeida: Introduced the Blue Water Policy to assert Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean by constructing fortresses and engaging in naval battles against adversaries like the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt.
– Alfonso de Albuquerque: Considered the architect of Portuguese power in the East, Albuquerque fortified Portuguese control by securing strategic locations across the Indian Ocean, implementing the permit system for ships, and monopolizing ship-building resources.
This summary encapsulates the Portuguese efforts in establishing a sea route to India, transitioning from traders to colonial rulers, and the key figures and policies that facilitated their dominance in the region.
Portuguese State
General Tendency and Historical Impact
– The Portuguese hold in India is often underestimated. Within fifty years of Vasco da Gama’s arrival, they had substantial control over many coastal areas of India. This included a significant portion of the coast around Goa, strategic locations along the west coast from Mumbai to Daman and Diu, and key southern ports like Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, and Calicut. They also established posts on the east coast and had a wealthy settlement at Hooghly in West Bengal by the end of the 16th century.
– Their influence extended to diplomatic relations with major Indian kingdoms, participating in the regional power dynamics and conflicts among various Indian states and empires. Remarkably, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India and the last to leave, with Goa, Daman, and Diu being recaptured by the Indian government in 1961.
Portuguese Administration in India
– The administration was led by a viceroy, serving a three-year term, alongside a secretary and, later, a council. The Vedor da Fazenda was responsible for revenues, cargoes, and fleet dispatches. Fortresses stretching from Africa to China were managed by captains and “factors,” who, despite the challenges of communication, often used their power for personal gain.
Religious Policy of the Portuguese
– The Portuguese, fueled by their conflicts with Moors and Arabs in North Africa, were initially intolerant towards Muslims but relatively tolerant towards Hindus. This changed with the introduction of the Inquisition in Goa, leading to persecution of Hindus as well.
– Despite this intolerance, Jesuits made a significant impression at Akbar’s court due to the Mughal emperor’s interest in theology. Jesuit missions to Akbar’s court in the late 16th century were welcomed but ultimately did not result in Akbar’s conversion to Christianity. Subsequent missions continued to influence secular politics, with Jesuits enjoying periods of favor under Jahangir, though hopes of converting him to Christianity were unfulfilled. Conflicts with the Portuguese viceroys eventually strained relations with the Mughal emperor.
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals
Arrival of Captain William Hawkins in Surat (1608)
– In 1608, Captain William Hawkins arrived in Surat with a letter from James I of England to Jahangir, seeking permission for trade. Despite Portuguese opposition, Hawkins received a warm reception from Jahangir in 1609, conversed directly in Turki, and was made a mansabdar. His marriage to an Armenian’s daughter and the initial trading permissions upset the Portuguese.
Portuguese and English Truce and Hawkins’ Departure (1611)
– After a brief period of favor, Hawkins left Jahangir’s court in 1611 due to Portuguese interference and Jahangir’s inconsistent policies. However, the English naval victory against the Portuguese in 1612 impressed Jahangir, showcasing English naval prowess.
Conflicts Leading to Portuguese Decline (1613 – Shah Jahan’s Reign)
– Portuguese piracy and their imprisonment of Muslims in 1613 angered Jahangir, leading to demands for compensation. Under Shah Jahan, the Portuguese lost their favored status at the Mughal court, marking the beginning of their decline in India and the end of their hopes to convert Mughal India to Christianity.
Capture of Hooghly
Establishment and Economic Activities of the Portuguese in Hooghly
– By the late 16th century, the Portuguese had established a strong trading post in Hooghly, Bengal, monopolizing salt manufacture and enforcing customs duties, which led to Hooghly overshadowing Satgaon in trade importance.
Portuguese Slave Trade and Mughal Siege (1632)
– The Portuguese engaged in a cruel slave trade, including the kidnapping of children. Their seizure of Mumtaz Mahal’s slave girls led to a Mughal siege of Hooghly in 1632, ending in Portuguese defeat, prisoner captures, and forced conversions or enslavement.
Decline of the Portuguese
Factors Contributing to the Portuguese Decline in India
– By the 18th century, the Portuguese lost their commercial dominance in India due to the rise of other European traders, local resentments, dishonest trade practices, and external factors like the discovery of Brazil and the union with Spain. Their decline was accelerated by the Marathas and other European powers outcompeting them in trade and territorial control.
Loss of Monopoly and Final Decline
– The Portuguese’s earlier monopoly on the sea route to India was eroded by Dutch and English competition. The discovery of other trading routes and the shift of economic focus to Brazil diminished Goa’s importance, leading to the eventual irrelevance of Portuguese control in India.
Significance of the Portuguese
Emergence of Naval Power and Military Innovation
– The arrival of the Portuguese marked the beginning of the European era in India and highlighted the importance of naval power, previously seen with powers like the Cholas.
– Portuguese ships, equipped with cannons, aimed to monopolize trade through force or the threat thereof, disregarding any existing rules except their own.
– In 16th-century Malabar, the Portuguese introduced military innovations such as body armor, matchlock men, and the deployment of guns from ships, potentially influencing the Mughal use of field guns.
– The Portuguese onshore military contribution included the system of drilling infantry groups on the Spanish model in the 1630s, countering Dutch pressure. This practice was later adopted by the French, English, Marathas, and Sikhs, leading to the formation of sepoy armies.
Technological and Organizational Skills at Sea
– Portuguese ships were designed to withstand Atlantic conditions, allowing them to carry heavier armaments and utilize castled prows and sterns for boarding actions, which Indian builders later adapted.
– Their skills in organization, such as establishing royal arsenals, dockyards, maintaining a system of pilots, mapping, and prioritizing state forces over private shipping, were notable. The Dutch and English, among other Europeans in Asia, became the primary inheritors of this knowledge.
Cultural Contributions and Legacy
– Despite the negative memory of religious persecution, the Portuguese made significant cultural contributions, particularly in the arts through missionaries and the Church, who served as teachers and patrons in India.
– They introduced European art forms to India, including music, painting, carving, and sculpture.
– Goa became renowned for its skilled silversmiths and goldsmiths, known for elaborate filigree work and jewel-embedded metalwork, although the architecture of churches built under Portuguese influence was relatively simple, focusing on interior decoration.